²See eg. Commonwealth v Huon Transport Pty. Ltd. (1945) 70 CLR 293.

³Acts Interpretation Act 1901 (Cwlth) s.22(a).

⁴Pye v Renshaw (1951) 84 CLR 58.

⁵Teori Tau v Commonwealth (1969) 119 CLR 564.

⁶Kingswell v The Queen (1985) 159 CLR 264.

⁷See eg. Bank of New South Wales v Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 per Dixon J.

⁸(1988) 165 CLR 360.

⁹Latham CJ, McTiernan J concurring, in Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc. v Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116, 147 and Aickin J in Church of Scientology v Mr Justice Woodward (unreported, noted in (1980) 11 Fed L Rev 102).

¹⁰Ibid.

¹¹Quick, J. and Garran, R. The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth. Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1901, 961.

¹²(1992) 177 CLR 106.

¹³Ibid. 140.

¹⁴(1991-92) 177 CLR 1.

¹⁵Cf. R v Big M Drug Mart (1984) 5 DLR (4th) 121, in which a corporation charged with an offence under the Lord's Day Act 1970 (Can) successfully challenged the validity of the Act by relying on the freedom of conscience and religion guaranteed by s.2(a) of the Canadian Charter, although corporations were held unable to possess a conscience or religion.

¹⁶Cf. Lamer CJC's suggestion to this effect in R v Wholesale Travel Group Inc. (1991) 84 DLR (4th) 577, 178.

¹⁷(1994) 124 ALR 1.

¹⁸(1994) 124 ALR 80.

¹⁹A separate implied freedom of speech exists in the Western Australian Constitution (ibid. 88-90 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ, Deane J concurring).

²⁰The exact scope of the defence is summarised in Theophanous v The Herald & Weekly Times, op. cit. 26 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ. Deane J would have given the defence greater scope, but joined in the orders of the other majority judges.

²¹Ibid. 61 per Deane J.

²²Ibid. 12 per Mason CJ, Toohey and Gaudron JJ.

²³Dan-Cohen, M. Op. cit. (1991) 1234.

²⁴McDonald, M. (1987) Op. cit. 224 n.14.

²⁵"Natural justice" is usually referred to when speaking of the judiciary and "procedural fairness" when speaking of administrators (Kioa v West (1985) 159 CLR 550, 583). I will employ the latter term here.

²⁶Op. cit. 617 per Brennan J.

²⁷Ibid. 618 per Brennan J.

²⁸Ibid.

²⁹Ibid. 582.

³⁰Of course, procedural fairness alone cannot prevent autonomy rights from being infringed where these are not protected by substantive legal rights. It can however provide an opportunity for autonomy rights to be upheld through the operation of rules of evidence, or through the exercise of discretion.

³¹(1981-82) 151 CLR 342.

³²Ibid. 348.

³³(1985) 7 FCR 482.

³⁴Ibid. 490 per curiam.

³⁵Re Bolton; Ex parte Beane (1987) 162 CLR 514, 523. See also Baker v Campbell (1983) 153 CLR 52, 116 per Deane J; 123 per Dawson J.

³⁶See eg. CJ Burland Pty. Ltd. v Metropolitan Meat Industry Board (1968) 120 CLR 400.

³⁷Attorney-General v Wiltshire United Dairies Ltd. (1921) 19 LGR 534.

³⁸American Dairy Queen (Qld) Pty. Ltd. v Blue Rio Pty. Ltd. (1981) 147 CLR 677, 683 per Mason J.

³⁹See Sillery v R (1981) 35 ALR 227.

⁴⁰(1978) 38 FLR 281.

⁴¹For instance, the various statutory provisions which codify the right to trial by jury employ general words in according the right to "the accused person" (Criminal Code (WA) s.622), or in requiring trial by jury in "all indictable offences prosecuted" (District Court of Western Australia Act 1969 (WA) s.46).

⁴²See Byrne, D. and Heydon, J. Cross on Evidence. 4th Australian ed., Butterworths, Sydney, 1991, 679 and the cases there cited.

⁴³Op. cit.

⁴⁴Ibid. 500.

⁴⁵[1939] 2 KB 395.

⁴⁶Ibid. 409.

⁴⁷In addition, one judge of the majority, Brennan J, was of the opinion that although the privilege against self-incrimination did not apply to corporations, a similar privilege against self-exposure to a penalty did apply. This was available to Caltex in resisting a notice served under rules of court, but not another notice served under s.29 of the Clean Waters Act.

⁴⁸EPA v Caltex Refining Co. Pty. Ltd., op. cit. 527 per Deane, Dawson and Gaudron JJ.

⁴⁹Ibid. 507.

⁵⁰See Advisory Committee to the Constitutional Commission. Individual and Democratic Rights. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1987, 47.

⁵¹EPA v Caltex Refining Co. Pty. Ltd., op. cit. 556 per McHugh J.

⁵²Trade Practices Commission. Misuse of Market Power: Section 46 of the Trade Practices Act 1974. Belconnen, 1990, 33.